Dramatism Theory and Kenneth Burke

Dramatism Theory and Kenneth Burke Investigation Into The Theory Of Dramatism And Kenneth Burke This report investigates the communication theory of dramatism and Kenneth Burke, to understand the basic concepts of dramatism and obtain an understanding. Kenneth Burke is the founder of the theory of dramatism, he lived until the age of 96 (1897-1993). The theory uses two terms to differentiate between movements, action is used to describe intentional action and motion describes meaningless action. The theory uses the term guilt to describe any feeling of tension within a person. Burke believed that humans communicate to purge their guilt, in a guilt redemption cycle. The theory explains identification as a consubstantiation, a portion of substance that overlaps when people communicate. A core component of dramatism is the dramatistic pentad and its elements, which can help analyse a communication event. An example of applying the pentad is included and explanation on how dramatism can be applied to day to day events, with a portion explaining how dramatism can be applied in infor mation technology. Dramatism is then evaluated by using common tests for testing interpretive communication theories. This report contains several criticisms of dramatism regarding problems in the theory and with interpretation of the theory. Introduction Purpose The purpose of this report is to investigate the communication theory of dramatism and Kenneth Burke, to gain an understanding of this theory to share with my class. The basis of the research in this report will be used for an education presentation, in an attempt to share my findings with my class. Scope The scope of this report is to investigate Kenneth Burke and his theory of dramatism, to gain a basic understanding. This included an understanding of Burkes history, the concepts of dramatism and problems with dramatism. The information researched was from books, journal articles found on databases and Internet websites with information about dramatism. Limitations This report is affected by several limitations, the biggest of which is my knowledge of rhetoric communication theories starting this research project. This is a large limitation because dramatism is based on previous work in the field of rhetorical communication, and this significantly increased the time taken to understand the theory. Time is another limitation which affected this report, as this report is written under the pressure of a deadline, reducing the amount of research that could be done. Another factor involving time that impacted this report is that while writing this report as a student, time is a valued and rare commodity. A final limitation on this report is the availability of information which is targeted at a student investigating dramatism, as a lot of the work is aimed at Burklean scholars. Research Methods Information obtained for this report is found from books, journal article from databases and Internet sites. The books were a basis for my research, as they provided a broad overview of the core theory and explanations. While the journal articles and Internet sites provided an in depth view into one or few aspects of the theory. Structure Of Report This report moves onto a literacy review which provides a brief summary, evaluation of accuracy and evaluation of validity of the information. The literacy review contains two sources from books, journal articles and internet sites related to the topic of dramatism. The findings section follows which provides a background to Kenneth Burke, an outline of theories, an application of the theory and an evaluation of the theory. From the findings a conclusion section is drawn, providing a summary of points of information points and a critique of the theory. A glossary of terms, references and bibliography is provided to assist the reader. Literature Review Theories of human Communication (7th ed.) Littlejohn, S W. (2003). Theories of human communication (7th ed.).  California: Wadsorth/Thomson Learning. Although Littlejohn does not cover Kenneth Burkes personal history, he does cover the theory of Dramatism in depth. Littlejohn describes the terms actions, motives, guilt, substance, consubstantiality and identification from Burkes work, with examples. Other fundamentals of Burkes work are explained in great detail such as symbols, no neutral words, dramatistic pentad and the five elements of the dramatistic pentad. Littlejohn also uses the example of Edward Kennedy to explain how the dramatistic pentad can be applied. Littlejohns information appears to be accurate and valid to other sources studied, he also includes a large bibliography and footnotes at the bottom of each page to reference the information. Aside from the described physical evidence found to validate accuracy, Littlejohn is a highly regarded authority in communication theories. Communication Theories Miller, K. (2001). Communication Theories. New York: McGraw-Hill Companies Miller describes Burkes personal history and education before moving onto the topic of Dramatism. It is described that four aspects of Burkes thought have been particularly influential in shaping views of the social world. Aside from describing aspects of Burkes work such as motion versus action, guilt and Burke believing life is drama, Miller includes and briefly analyses Burkes poem labelled as â€Å"definition of man†, and discusses a paper written about the problem of agency. The dramatistic pentad and its five elements are clearly defined, along with action as rhetorical, identification, substance, consubstantiation and the importance of Burkes work. Miller is regarded as an authority in the field of communication theories, and used a large bibliography in this book. The information on Dramatism was consistent with other sources studied. â€Å"Identification† as a Key Term in Kenneth Burkes Rhetorical Theory Quigley, B L. (n.d.). Identification as a key term in Kenneth Burkes rhetorical theory. Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://acjournal.org/holdings/vol1/iss3/burke/quigley.html Quigley explains that Burkes use of Identification is accessory to the traditional focus of persuasion, and then explains how and why. The article goes over the basic concepts of Burkes work in the field of identification and persuasion, and then moves onto different types of identification. The article covers identification as semi-conscious, through self-persuasion, though mundane/recurring and through representation with examples from Princess Dianas death. Quigley only had five references for this article, although three of them are work by Kenneth Burke. Despite a relatively small number of references, this article expands on topics that I have studied in other sources. Coming to Terms with Kenneth Burkes Pentad Clarke, J. (n.d.). Coming to terms with Kenneth Burkes pentad. Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://www.acjournal.org/holdings/vol1/iss3/burke/rountree.html This paper starts as an introduction to Burkes work, to move onto expanding the pentad into a heuristic, as Burke discovered in his later work attitude belongs in the pentad. The paper also explains that Burke does not claim any originality for his pentad, as previous theorists had come up with the same heuristic using different terms. Clarke then explains an interpretation of the pentad in which critics should also look for grammatical and non-verbal function for motives, not just their superficial connection to a source. This paper included ideas and theories that I had not yet studied or seen before, but it included examples of how the ideas should be applied. Clarke has used a large list of references to create this document and the article can be found from Em Griffens website. With this in mind, a lot of the information I have seen in other sources and I believe the rest to be accurate and valid for reasons given. Re-visiting Kenneth Burke: Dramatism/Logology and the problem of Agency Conrad, C., Macom, E A. (1995). Re-visiting Kenneth Burke: Dramatism/Logology and the problem of agency. The Southern Communication Journal. 61(1), 11-29. The problem of agency arises in this document from human actors being defined as â€Å"choice-making animals†, the balance between voluntarism and determinism are questioned. The problem with agency described in this article is based on the problem of finding a way of accounting for human experience with recognition, and a pure determinism and pure voluntarism are unacceptable. The article describes Burkes work with this problem and a number of different interpretations of the relationship between action and motion. It is suggested that a social action theory needs to be developed which is not grounded in dualism between action and structure inevitably. This document has been extensively researched as it has a large list of references which include Kenneth Burkes work and his thoughts and the criticism received regarding this topic. This article is from The Southern Communication Journal, indicating that it should be very accurate and contain only valid information. Defending Dramatism as ontological and literal Crable, B. (2000). Defending dramatism as ontological and literal. Communication Quarterly. 48(4), This article was written to document Crables work as he reread the dispute the work of Burke to provide insight to the argument of dramatism as epistemological and metaphorical or ontological and literal. The document investigates Burkes work with an independent view to discover how Burke would have answered the question at hand. But it is concluded that Burke defends dramatism as ontology because he begins with language as action, not representation. Burkes work also argues that this starting point is literal, that it offers the most complete approach to the study of motivation. The article mostly references Burkes work as that is what is in question, and the article was published in the Communication Quarterly. Therefore the work must contain a high level of accuracy and validity. Findings Background To Theorist The theory of dramatism was developed by Kenneth Burke who lived from 1897 to 1993, to â€Å"describe what he saw going on when people opened their mouths to communicate† (Griffin, 2009, p.289). Burkes work has had a large impact on communication although Burke never graduated from college, and despite this he taught at a number of institutions of higher level education. Burke entered the field of communication in 1952 and he was introduced by Maris Hochmuth Nichols, with her contrast between old rhetoric and the new rhetoric. Burkes career included literary critic, social critic, poet, fiction author, translator, composer and social theorist. Since Burkes death at the age of 96, there is now a Kenneth Burke Society which holds conferences and tributes to Burke and his work. Outline Of Theory To understand humans and the social world, Kenneth Burke uses two terms to differentiate between intentional and unintentional movements or behaviour. These are motion used to describe behaviour which are non-purposeful or unintentional and action which is behaviour that is purposeful or intentional. Burke believed that it is the difference between action and motion that makes human distinct from other animals. Miller states â€Å"In the most basic sense, through, the move from motion to action – through the use of symbolism, and especially language – marks humans as agents rather than reactors in the social world† (p. 90). The difference between an action and a reaction from past experience has caused much controversy over the description of agency. For Burke language is always emotionally loaded and no word can be neutral, as attitudes and feelings appear in the language used. Miller (2001) states â€Å"Burke (1935) believed that the drama of life is motivated by guilt† (p. 90). Burke used the term guilt to describe a variety of negative processes such as anxiety, embarrassment, shame and disgust. He also believed that to purge our guilt we use victimage, in that we either blame ourselves as in the term mortification or blame some else as in the term scapegoating. The guilt redemption cycle is complete once the guilt has been purged through mortification or scapegoating, although it is often short lived because the social world involves guilt that will start the cycle again. Burkes work used three sources of guilt, the negative, principal of perfection and principal of hierarchy. For Burke rhetoric was not just a process of persuasion, but also a process of creating identification. For this identification Burke used the term substance, to describe characteristics or identity of a person. When two people meet their substances overlap to different extents, the amount of substance overlapping was called consubstantiation by Burke. It is through consubstantiation that identification is felt between people, and speakers will often try to gain an area of consubstantiation with their audience to form identification. Burke proposed three sources of identification, material identification, idealistic identification and formal identification. Littlejohn (2003) states â€Å"Identification is not an either/ or occurrence but a matter of degree† (p. 156). There are many different types of identification described in Burkes work, a common method of identification is common ground. Identification by common ground can be identification as semi-conscious, this identification occurs when a speaker uses symbols associated with a wealth or class. Identification through self-persuasion can be described as keeping faith despite criticisms, due to rationalising their choice in ways that strengthen identification. Identification through mundane and recurring can be caused by becoming familiar with something or someone because they are always in your life somehow. Identification through representation typically occurs when a person views another persons actions as inspiring, and this creates identification with that person they would like to be. Successful communicators often adopt strategies in order to identify with their audience, and Burke suggests in order to analyse an event the strategies must be identified. Miller states â€Å"His proposal of the dramatistic pentad (Burke, 1945, 1968) considers five aspects of social life that should be considered in order to understand how we behave, and talk about our behaviour, in the symbolic world† (p. 91). When analysing with the pentad it is important to also look for grammatical and non-verbal functions for motives as well as their analysis of words. The five elements of the dramatistic pentad are: Act – What was done Scene – The location and context of the act. Agent – The person or people that performed the act Purpose – The goal of the act Agency – Method used to perform the act From analysing a situation with the five elements of the dramatistic pentad and using Burkes pentadic ratio, it is possible to find the hidden views of a communication event. Application Of Theory Littlejohn (2003) describes David Lings work on how the Burkes pentad can be used to understand a communication event, as similar communications are seen often from politicians around the world: In 1969 Edward Kennedy, a senator from Massachusetts, was involved in an automobile accident with an aide, Mary Jo Kopechne, in which he accidentally drove a car off a bridge into a pond. Kennedy escaped, but Kopechne drowned. In a remarkable address to the public about a week later, he explained what happened and attempted to regain the support of the people. Ling writes that Kennedy wanted to achieve two things: to minimize his own responsibility for the accident and to make the people of Massachusetts responsible for whether or not he would continue in office. Kennedys appeal on the first point describes himself (agent) as helpless victim of the events leading to the death of the young woman (scene). He explains his own failure to report the accident (act) as a consequence of his confusion and injuries. Kennedys depiction makes him out to be a victim of a tragic situation. Later in his speech, Kennedy essentially offered to resign if the citizens wanted him to. Here, the scene shi fted to the public reaction to the accident, the agent became the people of Massachusetts, the act was their decision as to whether he should resign, the agency would be a statement of resignation, and the purpose would be to remove him from office. Ling believes this was a very effective speech. The reaction was overwhelmingly positive, and Kennedy continued in office. (p. 156-157) From the above example of how to apply Burkes work and the pentad to analyse an event, as the pentad can be used to analyse many communication events including political speeches. Burkes work can also be applied to just about any other communication event as well, to analyse underlying focus and views. Identification methods and substance can be seen in common events such as Michael Jacksons death, there was much criticisms when he was alive by the media, although many people still shared a feeling of identification with him. The guilt redemption cycle can be used on a daily basis to help understand different motives for communications, especially communications resulting from a negative situation or result. Initially Burkes work was developed for face-to-face communication, but it can also be applied to the IT industry. A main source of communication in the IT industry is via email or instant messaging, this can also be analysed by the Burkes work. By analysing communication strategies, language and tones used in the message sent it is possible to detect guilt, mortification or scapegoating. It is very easy to send a message of identification through hierarchy via online messaging, as the physical distance is ignored. Identification and persuasion can occur very easily through online messages and from websites, by the sender displaying a wide substance. Due to the large amount of communication methods in the information technology industry, the method of communication (scene) can hold significance in the communication strategy. This can be in the case of sending an important message as an email, signifying that the person does not particularly interested or want to see you. With the opp osite being possible as well, a person not sending an email for an unimportant reminder can indicate an excuse to start conversation. Evaluation Of Theory Dramatism is an interpretive theory about understanding why a person behaves in the way that they do, and not so much in the predication of human behaviour. Burkes theory offers a new understanding of people, behaviour and symbolic interaction. Burke applied his theory to Shakespeare, and since then has been applied to many politicians and public speakers in order to get a greater understanding of the underlying communications and texts. Burkes pentad applied to texts can provide a clarification of values, as it can identify the ideology behind the message being examined. The theory does not contain much aesthetic appeal, although it does use bibliographic terms over scientific terms which creates an aesthetic appeal. Aside from the bibliographic terms, the theory does not provide much aesthetics. Burkes work has appeared in many communication journals, and there is now a Kenneth Burke society dedicated to ensuring the understanding of dramatism and development on the kbjournal (Kenn eth Burke journal). Although there are debates over components of dramatism, the theory is widely accepted and considered to be a fundamental part of human interpretation. Aside from the Kenneth Burke society, there are now Burklean scholars which are dedicated to dramatism, so it is fair to conclude that this theory has caused a reform of society. Conclusion Summary Of Points Of Information This report has described information found about Kenneth Burke and the theory of dramatism discovered from my research. A background of Kenneth Burke was found and described before describing dramatism and its elements. To start describing dramatism, it is explained first the different between action and motion in regards to symbolism. The next topic described is guilt and the guilt redemption cycle, including explaining the concepts of mortification and scapegoating. To understand identification it is described how Burke viewed this with substance, consubstantiation and some common types of identification. Some brief definitions and descriptions are included as identification through common ground, as this is an essential part of identification. Finally the dramatistic pentad, elements of the pentad and its use are described. An example of applying dramatism to the real life incident of Edward Kennedy is included, as it is a great example of dramatism. It is then mentioned that Burkes work can be applied to many day to day events and the guilt can be seen on a day to day basis. Then it is explained how dramatism can be applied to the information technology industry, especially when information communication technology is used. The final section to findings evaluates dramatism as an interpretive theory, finding that all the standard tests for an interpretive study are successful in dramatism. Critique Of The Theory A key issue with Burkes work has been labelled the â€Å"problem of agency†, and the problem is finding a way of accounting for human reaction due to experiences and situations. It is when this is taken into consideration it becomes unclear as to if a choice was volunteered or determined, as an essential part of agency is choice. Burke was aware of this problem and spent a large portion of his career trying to construct a more accurate definition of agency, action and motion. This topic has been thoroughly analysed by many communication scholars with the suggestion that further work in developing a rhetorical theory of social action, that they start at the beginning with a view of the action-structure relationship which is not based on dualism like Burkes work. Another issue with Burkes work is the debate on whether dramatism is epistemological and metaphorical, or that dramatism is ontological and literal. This issue was first debated at the Eastern Communication Association conference, the debate failed to settle the issue. There is not as yet an answer to this issue, as Burke has stated that his work is not merely metaphorical, but is instead a literal way of speaking about the human condition. Although Burke has claimed his work is ontological and literal, there is debate that his work does not depict out this way. Burkes theory of dramatism is highly respected and a common tool in interpretive analysis of a communication event. Although many students have difficulty in coming to terms with dramatism and the way it is written, provides a difficult learning experience. The theory is built off previous work in the field of rhetoric, which also can provide learning difficulties when studying dramatism without exposure to old rhetoric. This theory is used frequently, although it is arguable whether dramatism is complete as problems still exist and debates still occur. In summary, Burkes work has changed the world of rhetoric although it may not be complete, in the sense that Burke did not finish solving problems in dramatism and debate continues. Although Burke is recognized for dramatism and all of its elements, Burke does not claim any originality for his pentad. As the same pentad is found in Aristotles and Talcon Parsons work, with the exception of different terms used to describe the same elem ents of the pentads. Glossary Of Terms Action – Purposeful and voluntary behaviours. Consubstantiation – The overlapping substance between people. Dramatism – What Kenneth Burke saw when people opened their mouths to communicate. Dramatistic – Looking at the nature of language stressing on language as action. Guilt – Term used to describe any feeling of tension within a person. Mortification – Purging guilt through self-blame. Motion – Non-purposeful and non-meaningful behaviours. Scapegoating – See victimage. Substance – Term to describe a persons physical characteristics, talents, occupation, experiences, personality, beliefs and attitudes. Victimage – The process of purging guilt through blame of another person or persons. References Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory. (7th ed.). States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies Littlejohn, S W. (2003). Theories of human communication. (7th ed.). United States of America: Wadsorth/Thomson Learning. Miller, K. (2001). Communication Theories. United States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies Bibliography Clarke, J. (n.d.). Coming to terms with Kenneth Burkes pentad. Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://www.acjournal.org/holdings/vol1/iss3/burke/rountree.html Conrad, C., Macom, E A. (1995). Re-visiting Kenneth Burke: Dramatism/Logology and the problem of agency. The Southern Communication Journal. 61(1), 11-29. Crable, B. (2000). Defending dramatism as ontological and literal. Communication Quarterly. 48(4),   323-343. Griffin, E. (2009). A first look at communication theory. (7th ed.). States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies Kenneth Burke. (2009) Retrieved August 30, 2009,   from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kenneth_Burke Littlejohn, S W. (2003). Theories of human communication. (7th ed.). United States of America: Wadsorth/Thomson Learning. Miller, K. (2001). Communication Theories. United States of America: McGraw-Hill Companies Quigley, B L. (n.d.). Identification as a key term in Kenneth Burkes rhetorical theory. Retrieved August 12, 2009 from http://acjournal.org/holdings/vol1/iss3/burke/quigley.html

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Once the leader of mobile devices for business associates across the United States, in recent years BlackBerry has loss significant market share to its competitors such as Apple’s iPhone and Google’s Android. Struggling to keep afloat, although BlackBerry only holds five percent of the total mobile device industry, it still succeeds in its consulting business solutions that BlackBerry offers its clients. BlackBerry Business Solutions offers hardware, software, and applications to improve businesses’ performance in several industries such as healthcare, wholesale and retailing, pharmaceuticals, and financial services. The need for efficiency and access to data in the healthcare industry has recently become a standard protocol of how physicians and healthcare providers treat patients. Especially since the handheld electronic devices and e-commerce applications markets have been expanding rapidly, this trend has in turn provided an outlet of immediate access and diversity of physician-oriented applications available in the marketplace. Research conducted by Manhattan Research states, â€Å"more than 80 percent of U.S. physicians [have] smartphones [in] 2012–up from 64 percent in 2009–and half of that group will use their phones for patient care, administrative functions†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Versel). BlackBerry has recognized these needs from the healthcare industry providing unique and customizable solutions to various clients’ problems by providing them with solutions and applications offered by their 70+ Healthcare ISV (independent software vendor) partners (Partner Solutions). BlackBerry has distinguished their business model by, â€Å"still dominat[ing] among physicians and healthcare application developers, through the iPhone and Google Android are closing the gap quickly†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (Versel). BlackBerry can see their successes throughout the entire healthcare continuum by offering e-commerce solutions that improve business and clinical performance across several categories within the healthcare industry which differentiate the services the can offer various businesses than Apple and Android. For instance, Mercy Health Partners, a conglomerate of 30+ hospitals across four states, needed to be able to provide immediate mobile access to patient records and clinical information at the bedside so physicians can more efficiently manage patient care (BlackBerry). BlackBerry Business Solutions were able to uniquely assess Mercy Health Partner’s needs and expand their health information systems by offering an e-commerce application called Clinical Xpert Navigator provided by on of their partners, Thompson Healthcare (BlackBerry). The Clinical Xpert Navigator gave Mercy a way to access and securely deliver patient information such as patient medications lists, transcribed report, lab results, and electronic health records at their various locations and right at their patients bedside tables. As a customer, Mercy Health Partners received an exclusive BlackBerry Enterprise Solution as apart of their business solutions model, which ran on BlackBerry smartphones and tablets making it a cost-effective use of their technology. This cost efficiency has in turn resulted in benefits seen in both Mercy Health Partners’ business performances but also their clinical patient care performance. The necessity for time in today’s society is critical for any industry. BlackBerry’s Business Solutions offer clients within the healthcare industry more time through e-commerce applications that directly improves the quality of care, access to care, and continuous care they can ultimately offer their patients in need and help save more lives. http://www.itproportal.com/2012/03/30/iphones-share-us-smartphone-market-very-close-android/ http://sg.blackberry.com/newsroom/success/Mercy_BCS.pdf

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The US War on Drugs in Latin America Essay - 3424 Words

The US War on Drugs in Latin America Introduction The United States has a long history of intervention in the affairs of one it’s southern neighbor, Latin America. The war on drugs has been no exception. An investigation of US relations with Latin America in the period from 1820 to 1960, reveals the war on drugs to be a convenient extension of an almost 200 year-old policy. This investigation focuses on the commercial and political objectives of the US in fighting a war on drugs in Latin America. These objectives explain why the failing drug policy persisted despite its overwhelming failure to decrease drug production or trafficking. These objectives also explain why the US has recently exchanged a war on drugs for the war on†¦show more content†¦The alternative crop programs the US proposed to replace coca failed for various reasons. 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The General Market Trends

Question: Write n essay onthe general market trends and the transactional values. Answer: In the period between 2014 and 2016, oil prices dropped drastically that resulted in changes in almost all the large companies involved in the oil industry. More or less all large multinational companies underwent some amounts of losses in order to maintain the market trend (Zhang 2012). Due to these reasons, some companies joined hands to reduce the overall losses by reducing the expenses involved in the oil industry. Some companies joined together by merger deals and other companies bought small and medium sized companies through acquisition deals. These mergers and acquisitions enabled the companies to reduce expenses and increase profits in the industry (Ahern 2012). For example, merger between an oil extraction company and an oil products manufacturer company enabled both to reduce expenses by operating extraction and manufacture activities within the same company. In this report, the general market trends and the transactional values have been taken and analyzed in order to understand the general trends of Shell and BG group merger. The selected merger is Shell and BG group and their deals and acquisitions during the oil price drop between 2014 and 2016. Literature Review According to the works of Ng and Donker (2013), The 2015 mergers and acquisitions report was written in the context of an 18-month-long oil price collapse that had led to increased uncertainty for upstream oil and gas producers, as well as the oilfield services and midstream sectors. In contrast, the downstream sector has benefited from widening refining margins, as feedstock prices fell rapidly while refined product prices declined at a slower pace. Due to crude oil supply growth outpacing demand growth globally, many oilfield services companies cut manpower, mothballed equipment, and began the process of rationalizing their geographical positions and service line portfolios. By the first half of 2015, many upstream producers followed suit with cash conservation measures and accelerated cost reductions involving a combination of manpower layoffs, renegotiation or cancellation of service and supply contracts, and deferral of discretionary capital projects. Excess oil production, particularly in the United States, was the most dominant factor affecting oil prices in 2015. Bairi et al. (2013) said that there are three factors that result in mergers and acquisitions of the companies. These are: The potential for recovery in oil prices The availability of capital Policy, tax, and regulatory changes In a report, Cartwright and Cooper (2012) opined that Mergers and Acquisitions activity in the upstream market for the entirety of 2015 was lower in terms of deal count and value than in any year since 2012. Distressed companies were, for the most part, able to avoid selling assets or being acquired by other companies. The heightened uncertainty and depressed confidence among market participants led to conditions that inhibited transaction flow. In his work, Austvik (2012) also said that The midstream sector, which includes oil and gas pipelines, processing plants, liquefied natural gas (LNG) facilities, and bulk storage terminals, delivered a deal count roughly equal, if not slightly above 2014. This buoyancy in transaction activity was in contrast to the significant decreases seen in the upstream and oilfield services sectors and reflected the different drivers present for the midstream sector. Tan (2013) also added that The downstream sector is a varied market segment that not only includes refining of crude oil but also oil product terminals, marketing, distribution, and retail operations. In 2015, downstream transaction volume was fairly consistent with 2014, if not slightly lower in dollar value. The geographical spread of downstream transactions across the globe was notably more diversified than it was in the other sectors, with deals taking place in every major region. Ghosal and Sokol (2013) on the other hand provided a different view. He said that many of these merger and acquisition deals were not dependant on the fall of price of oil. Nagano and Yuan (2013) added to this view and explained that most of the merger deals are to show the business prowess of the particular company or even expansion of business over international boundaries. Research Methodology In any study, the research methodology and the use of the research philosophy is steady with deciding the proper path for giving fundamental specifying to the study. The research philosophy is useful for doling out the analysts with leading presumptions and key comprehension of the point. The exploration theory is to be adjusted to the reasoning procedure of any study. The methods of insight are recognized to be positivism/post-positivism, social constructionist, participatory, and pragmatic. Further philosophical methodologies and their portrayal are delineated to demonstrate the correct legitimization under the study with a specific end goal to incorporate detailed study. Positivism/post-positivism: For some reasons, there are significant amount of contradiction and inconsistency prevails. The paradigm is identified to be positivism and post-positivism along with quantitative research. After some debate implications, the researchers have argued that the positivism and post-positivism is an act of real science, whereas, some has implied that the philosophy is not suitable for depicting the human and social issues in a complex manner. However, the post-positivism is approach that is more suitable rather than positivism in this study. Social constructivism: In this philosophy, the people are inclined for making sense to the living world, and proper interaction can lead to subjective understanding by means of their experiences. Social constructivists trust on variations in reality based on the multiplicity and differences. Pragmatic: The pragmatic philosophy is more or less adding all the philosophical approaches within one particular study. This pragmatic approach is comprised of all approaches strengths and weaknesses without specifying the suitability of any approach. Participatory: This philosophy is associated with marginalized or vulnerable people groups into the study. The philosophy is dependent on limited groups of people in any study. The study depends on primary and secondary information gathering alongside reasonable survey investigation. Then again, the optional studies are bolstered with related works before this specific study. Along these lines, the participatory theory is rejected as the study is not just reliant on individuals' support. Then again, the social constructivism is not appropriate, as this study does not offer a few varieties as a general rule. Once more, the study is led with supreme specifying and thus, the post-positivism logic is appropriate as opposed to down to earth theory. In any case, a portion of the scientists still contended that post-positivism reasoning looks for 'outright truth'; and in genuine examination that is not in any case conceivable. Consequently, the examination proof cannot be dependable to the study and the researchers endeavors for circumstances and results approach. The research methodology is huge for reasonable configuration upkeep inside the study with uncovering the present possibilities. The capability of the study lies in the fitting methodology determination and a large portion of the studies take after either inductive or deductive methodology. In the middle of two methodologies, the regular one is distinguished to be the inductive methodology, while the methodology does not bolster a bigger number of information as opposed to the deductive methodology. The deductive methodology is more point by point with profound comprehension of subject as indicated by the gathered information. Findings and Discussion Cause of Merging in Shell and BG group From a study of the trend in oil and gas market, it has been seen that with the fall of oil price, the oil and gas transactions have fallen drastically whereas the merger and acquisition deals rose by a large extent gradually from 2011 to 2016. This signifies that most companies were mainly interested in expanding their business over international boundaries rather that reaping most out of their business within a single region. Moreover, the drastic fall of oil price further forced Shell and BG group to extend their business in order to maintain viability in the market. Importance of Shell and BG group Merger In a finding by a major journal, Some 2014 trends continued into 2015. The decline in national oil company (NOC) MA activity continued in 2015, and total NOC deal value dropped to US$6.1 billion from about US$21 billion in 2014, down significantly from the 2012 record of almost US$122 billion. In the 2014 report, the market expected Chinese and Asian NOCs to take advantage of attractively priced assets, but the combination of lower oil prices and oil price volatility challenged such activity with many NOCs focusing more on their portfolios than on growth. Oil price outlook uncertainty and concerns over whether acquisition prices would fall further also limited private equity MA activity in oil and gas in 2015. There is, however, a significant pool of industry and financial investor capital targeting the sector which could be very busy in 2016. External Factors for PESTLE Analysis Bairi et al. (2013) said that there are six external factors that result in mergers and acquisitions of the companies. These are: Political factors: In a report, Cartwright and Cooper (2012) opined that Mergers and Acquisitions activity in the upstream market for the entirety of 2015 was lower in terms of deal count and value than in any year since 2012. Economic factors: In his work, Austvik (2012) also said that The midstream sector, which includes oil and gas pipelines, processing plants, liquefied natural gas (LNG) facilities, and bulk storage terminals, delivered a deal count roughly equal, if not slightly above 2014. This buoyancy in transaction activity was in contrast to the significant decreases seen in the upstream and oilfield services sectors and reflected the different drivers present for the midstream sector. Social factors: Tan (2013) also added that The downstream sector is a varied market segment that not only includes refining of crude oil but also oil product terminals, marketing, distribution, and retail operations. Technological factors: Ghosal and Sokol (2013) on the other hand provided a different view. He said that many of these merger and acquisition deals were not dependant on the fall of price of oil. Nagano and Yuan (2013) added to this view and explained that most of the merger deals are to show the business prowess of the particular company or even expansion of business over international boundaries. Environmental factors: In 2015, downstream transaction volume was fairly consistent with 2014, if not slightly lower in dollar value. The geographical spread of downstream transactions across the globe was notably more diversified than it was in the other sectors, with deals taking place in every major region. Legal factors: The legal factors are identified as regulatory factors, scheme description, and financial benefits analysis. Distressed companies were, for the most part, able to avoid selling assets or being acquired by other companies. The heightened uncertainty and depressed confidence among market participants led to conditions that inhibited transaction flow. Conclusion From the report, it can be concluded that there are many possible reasons for the merger and acquisition deals in the oil industry during the fall of oil price between 2014 and 2016. More or less all large multinational companies underwent some amounts of losses in order to maintain the market trend. Due to this reasons, some companies joined hands to reduce the overall losses by reducing the expenses involved in the oil industry. Some companies joined together by merger deals and other companies bought small and medium sized companies through acquisition deals. These mergers and acquisitions enabled the companies to reduce expenses and increase profits in the industry. Due to crude oil supply growth outpacing demand growth globally, many oilfield services companies cut manpower, mothballed equipment, and began the process of rationalizing their geographical positions and service line portfolios. By the first half of 2015, many upstream producers followed suit with cash conservation measures and accelerated cost reductions involving a combination of manpower layoffs, renegotiation or cancellation of service and supply contracts, and deferral of discretionary capital projects. Excess oil production, particularly in the United States, was the most dominant factor affecting oil prices in 2015. The decline in national oil company (NOC) MA activity continued in 2015, and total NOC deal value dropped to US$6.1 billion from about US$21 billion in 2014, down significantly from the 2012 record of almost US$122 billion. In the 2014 report, the market expected Chinese and Asian NOCs to take advantage of attractively priced assets, but the combination of lower oil prices and oil price volatility challenged such activity with many NOCs focusing more on their portfolios than on growth. Analyzing all the available data and the general market trends during the specified timeline, the main reasons and other values have been deduced and some recommendations have been provided ac cordingly. Recommendations Recommendations that can be provided that can be provided to the oil companies regarding mergers and acquisitions during fall of oil price are as follows: The companies should always be able to predict the possible rise or fall of oil prices in the market. This is essential since once the price falls drastically, the company has to take damage control techniques resulting in unwanted mergers and acquisitions. The companies should be well aware of the other companies in the industry. This is necessary, since during mergers or acquisitions, the companies should be aware of the other with which they are building partnership. The companies should create some new policies so that they are not forced to merge with other companies at an unwanted timing. Moreover, merger and acquisition are not the only solutions during the fall of oil price. The companies should have some alternative plans for business and supply. There are some incidents like war, oil spill, mine explosion and others, that result in decrease in the supply as well as hike in the oil price. Reflection In this paper, I have conducted a research on the identification of the primary reasons that a have lead to the sudden and unexpected drop in the price of the fossil fuels and its effects on the oil industry. I have conducted an extensive research on the trade policies and the existing transactional policies on the trade of fossil fuels for understanding the factors that have been related to the change in price of fossil fuels. I have also analyzed the possible factors that can lead to the fall of the price of fossil fuels and the possible factors that have led to the merger of different companies in the oil industry. I limited my research to the period between 2014 and 2016. I used existing statistics and conducted a general survey myself to determine the demands of fossil fuels all over the world. I also analyzed some statistics over the general trend of fossil fuel usage in different sectors of the countries and the operations in the companies in the oil industry. I assorted all t he related information and used them for coming to a specific conclusion regarding the fall of price of the fossil fuels and the merger of different companies. Through this research, I have been able to enhance my analytic skills in collecting data from different reliable sources as well as assorting all the relevant data for concluding the required factor. In the course of the research, I have set a number of aims that had to be met at the end of the research. I have been successful in meeting all the aims that I had pre set. For gathering sufficient information and understanding the general trade of the fossil fuel business, I conducted a literature review. In this part, I collected a large number of relevant articles and works of reputed researches that enabled me to gain a good amount of technical and statistical knowledge on the subject. I also assorted the most relevant parts of the works and made them a basis for conducting my part of the research. The literature review proce ss also helped increase my analytic skills in extracting the most important pieces of information from a large amount of data. The research methodology procedure helped me use all the assorted information and comparing them with the latest statistics for finding a general conclusion for the aims of my research. My research methodology also helped me gain research skills that will help me in the future. I conducted the data analysis part using my analytic skills. For this, I assorted all the data from reliable sources and compared them with the modern world statistics to find the reasons behind the fall of prices of fossil fuels. For the critical evaluation part, I completed my research and analyzed it all over for identifying different possible views on the subject. This also helped me rectify any possible mistakes that might have surfaced during the research process. Moreover, I have been able to enhance the quality of my research using the critical evaluation process. This process also helped me reach the necessary final conclusion. Finally, I was able to meet all the requirements of the research as well as enhanced my technical and analytic skills and successfully completed all the aims of the project. Bibliography Ahern, K.R., 2012. Bargaining power and industry dependence in mergers. Journal of Financial Economics, 103(3), pp.530-550. Ahmed, M. and Ahmed, Z., 2014. Mergers and Acquisitions: Effect on Financial Performance of Manufacturing Companies of Pakistan. Middle-East Journal of Scientific Research, 21(4), pp.689-699. Alsharairi, M., 2012. Does high leverage impact earnings management? Evidence from non-cash mergers and acquisitions. Alsharairi, M. and Salama, A.(2012). Does High Leverage Impact Earnings Management, pp.17-33. Austvik, O.G., 2012. Landlord and entrepreneur: The shifting roles of the state in Norwegian oil and gas policy. Governance, 25(2), pp.315-334. Bairi, J., Murali Manohar, B. and Kundu, G.K., 2013. 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Harness Oil and Gas Big Data with Analytics: Optimize Exploration and Production with Data Driven Models. John Wiley Sons. Krishnan, C.N.V., Masulis, R.W., Thomas, R.S. and Thompson, R.B., 2012. Shareholder litigation in mergers and acquisitions. Journal of Corporate Finance, 18(5), pp.1248-1268. Kumar, P. and Rabinovitch, R., 2013. CEO Entrenchment and corporate hedging: evidence from the oil and gas industry. Journal of financial and quantitative analysis, 48(03), pp.887-917. Moeller, S. and Brady, C., 2014. Intelligent M A: Navigating the mergers and acquisitions minefield. John Wiley Sons. Nagano, M. and Yuan, Y., 2013. Cross-border acquisitions in a transition economy: The recent experiences of China and India. Journal of Asian Economics, 24, pp.66-79. Ng, A. and Donker, H., 2013. Purchasing reserves and commodity market timing as takeover motives in the oil and gas industry. Energy Economics, 37, pp.167-181. Pearl, J. and Rosenbaum, J., 2013. Investment banking: valuation, leveraged buyouts, and mergers and acquisitions. John Wiley Sons. Tan, X., 2013. China's overseas investment in the energy/resources sector: Its scale, drivers, challenges and implications. Energy Economics, 36, pp.750-758. Xue, Q., Wang, Z., Liu, S. and Zhao, D., 2014. An improved portfolio optimization model for oil and gas investment selection. Petroleum Science, 11(1), pp.181-188. Zhang, Z., 2012. The overseas acquisitions and equity oil shares of Chinese national oil companies: A threat to the West but a boost to China's energy security?. Energy Policy, 48, pp.698-701.